Demonstration of Architectural Creativity †MyAssignmenthelp.com

Question: Examine about the Demonstration of Architectural Creativity. Answer: Presentation: The colosseum was structured and developed with the principle point of facilitating warrior shows combined with a sample of magnificence and style. The amphitheater and the shows it facilitated were an image of roman culture the executives (Hopkins 2011). It was intended to be the biggest the biggest amphitheater in the Roman world with a group limit of around 50,000 individuals. The whole structure was a wonder, situated in the city of Rome. The development of the structure started during the rule of Vespasian and finished when his child was on the reign in 80 AD. The field is oval formed and highlights a celebrated solid structure total with lines of seats. Under the field, there was arrangement of all administrations required for the shows, for example, creature confines, devices and stores(Coarelli 2007). Typically, a fence would be raised when wild creatures were inside the field in order to keep the creatures from ambushing observers. The planned join the development of an underground section connecting the fighter preparing school and the performance center for simple access. Shimmering gold shields were utilized to adorn the highest point of the outside of the structure. The outside passages were curved and the supporting sections were semi-roundabout. The styles of the sections shifted relying upon the story with for example the top segments were of resplendent Corinthian request while the base were of basic Doric request. The colosseum was altogether different from other Greek and Roman Public buildings(Hopkins 2011). The outside of the colosseum was an exhibition of structural inventiveness combined with magnificence while the inside gave a stage to the feature of Roman culture and sports. The colosseum remained as a symbol of structural plan in the roman realm and its plan was imitated all through the empire(Welch 2007). Adornment V Purity of Form/Space Christian Gothic Churches, for example, the York Minster in the United Kingdom were made to move amazement and worship as a position of love. The chapels were great and tall, thoughtfully clearing upwards with style, tallness. Gothic is gotten from a clan that was the encapsulation of intensity in Europe, the Goths. One of the most Iconic highlights of the style in Gothic temples was the sharp curves ribbed vaults. The ribbed vaults were molded like within a vessel, consequently accepted to be an image speaking to the congregation as where Christians venture takes place(Spanswick 2014). The connection between the Gothic structures and God is striking. Their self important nature was for the brilliance of God. Each rib vault is an image of a religious thought and each visually impaired arcade spoke to a holy place of faith(Meades 2011). The littler structures were worked of poor material contrasted with the bigger ones that were better yet at the same time constructed dependent on the accessible assets and local point of reference the board. The structural style of the structures depended on the ceremonial elements of the houses of God as the seat of a cleric. It is in this places of worship that Christian practices, for example, book of scriptures perusing, offering of supplications, festivity of the Eucharist, proclaiming of lessons and singing of songs. Remotely, the places of worship were finished compositionally by utilization of tracery, arcading, segments and moldings(Wikipedia 2017). For temples that were made out of stone, figures were the most prevalent type of beautification. The illegal City was intended to be a symbol of the magnificent force and an impression of philosophical and strict principle(Wikipedia 2017). It was to be the focal point of the antiquated Beijing City and should fill in as the political and custom capital of the old China. This made the engineering architects to follow the Confucian belief system that was liable for holding the social texture of the Chinese together. The format of the city was with the end goal that the exercises that should have been directed depended on the members social job. Ones situation in the illustrious family decided their place in the courts of the Forbidden City(Peng 2015). The fashioners decision of design style included the Chinese feeling of society order. There structures depended on the state building guidelines of the eleventh Century that gave plan determination to various sorts of structures relying upon the economic wellbeing in Chinese society(Peng 2015). The inward court had the habitations of the hirelings, the family members of the ruler and the sovereign himself. There was an expansion in the rise as one moved towards the focal point of the Forbidden City. The expansion represented the heads power(Jarzombek and Prakash 2010). The external court was predominantly for the general population and the related open functions. A portion of the emblematic structures consolidated in the Forbidden City incorporate the utilization of yellow shading which was the rulers shading. This was prove by the utilization of yellow coated tiles for material. Both the St. Diminishes Basilica and the Tempietto were a piece of the renaissance engineering. Renaissance design was polished in Europe between the fourteenth and seventeenth hundreds of years. Regarding style, it gets from the past Gothic engineering. The renaissance engineering stresses on the geometry, balance, consistency and extent of parts. Components of the structure are masterminded in an efficient way and there was expanded utilization of hemispherical vaults specialties, and half circle curves. The utilization of renaissance design gave a stage to normal commitment with engineering the executives when individuals can draw in and comprehend it more. The Tempietto was an ideal encapsulation of this style of engineering planned by Bramante. The significant accentuation is on the amicability of the extents, the balance of the Doric request and the effortlessness of the volumes. The arrangement area is round, speaking to divine protection(Flon and Chambers 1984). The focal vault of the St. Diminishes Basilica is prominent in Rome. The St. Diminishes square methodologies the basilica with tall corridors. The basilica is situated at the opposite finish of the square and is finished with gigantic segments. The long hub in the basilica is for the most part centered onto the pulpit(Haris and Zucker 2014). In the two structures, the divider are finished with sections daze curves and pediments. In the renaissance design, components can be spilt into accuracy. For instance, both of the structures examined have exteriors that can be part evenly about the vertical hub. Renaissance Symmetry and dividing is apparent all through the whole structure for instance, the curves and the arrangement of pilasters can be proportioned. The situation of the windows and segments demonstrate movement to the center. The structure of the journey church by Balthasar in Bamburg, Germany depended on the Baroque engineering. Elaborate style of engineering began in the sixteenth Century and gave more knowledge into the structure, light and emotional power. It concentrated on feeling and faculties as a way to deal with structure and comprehension of engineering. Neumann utilized a mind boggling plan segment that resembled a cross with a progression of ovals(Kleiner 2013). The roof of the house of God was furnished with huge window openings that would permit regular light to enlighten the inside. This was enhanced by the windows that additionally permitted light into the structure. This light given a stupendous sandstone faade to anybody inside the structure along with a wonderful and warm climate. Development of the journey church was begun in 1743 and was finished in 1774. The inside of the structure was a result of florid engineering. The veneers were exceptionally finished along with numerous bends. The Baroque style requests to the feelings and sentiments of the clients and furthermore give an announcement of riches. More consideration is paid to the beautification of a structure instead of to the structures for help. The structure is a design of satisfaction, where there is finished enlightenment of the inside making the excellence of the enlivening segments be obvious to all, the change is terrific and stands triumphantly as an image of authority(Smith 1990). Authentic Origins V Contemporary Innovation Provincial engineering was utilized by the main pioneers in North America. The settlers were from England and other European nations subsequently coming about to blended ideas of design embraced relying upon ones nation of starting point. Between 1770-1700, the Georgian style of engineering was the essentially utilized. It was a mutt of the extravagant, Neoclassical and Renaissance engineering. The White House, situated in the United States legislative hall is a case of the Georgian engineering. The draftsmen of this period(colonial) depended intensely on Old world architecture(Wikipedia 2017). Thomas Jefferson was one of the primary modelers who attempted to think of a one of a kind structure after the unrest war. He started a priority of altering old structures for present day use as can be found in his plan of the capital structure in Richmond. Jefferson put together his plan with respect to the Maison Carree, an old Roman structure in Nimes, France(Kukla and Kukla 2005). He brought another flood of neoclassicism that polluted the Georgian Architecture with the historical backdrop of imperialism. Another of Jeffersons progressive design was the Monticello House. He acquired from Andrea Palladio compositional structures. The structure has four Tuscan sections, an arch, and focal corridor enlightened by common light from above. Benjamin Latrobe was a solid advocate on elaborate immaculateness in building plan. He put together his work with respect to the Greek recovery architecture(Cotter, Roberts and Parrington 1992). He planned the Bank of Pennsylvania in the territory of Philadelphia in 1801 utilizing this style. The structure followed that of the notable sanctuaries of Greece. Post transformation engineering was blended. Nobody specific building style was followed. Every fashioner base his structured relying upon their inclination. In spite of the fact that some acquired styles from different nations, some intense engineers like Thomas J

Mariah carey Essay Example For Students

Mariah carey Essay Mariah Carey is diva. Her hits have crossed two decades and have broken records since a long time ago held by music heavyweights like the Beatles and one Elvis Presley. Her shows have developed exponentially and she consistenly sells out scenes over the globe. Her prosperity has permitted her to toss a huge number of dollars around as though it were unimportant money. In any case, she demands, shes still only a young lady from New York. Mariah experienced childhood with Long Island, little girl to dedicated guardians. Her dad Alfred Roy, half Venezuelan, and her mom Patricia, Irish, ingrained solid qualities in their infant Mariah. Life was extreme for Mariah, however she kept her jawline up. She worked her way through Oldfield Middle School and graduated Harborfield High School at 17, and after one day she moved to New York City. Mariah had overwhelming joy in her heart and a bewildering voice backing up those fantasies. She is known for an eight octave voice level, something about unparallel in the music business. In any case, as anybody whos worked in the business knows, ability doesnt consistently equivalent superstardom. In any case, Mariah had a couple of different things going for her too. She had the option to get a gig filling in as a reinforcement vocalist for Brenda K. Starr, who was so dazzled with Mariahs voice that she elected to go along her demo tape. Starr passed it to Tommy Mottola, a melodic brains, the man behind Sony Music and Columbia Records. Tommy cherished it; and clearly adored her also. The two marry in 1993. Be that as it may, before the couple traded nupitals, Mariah discharged her first collection, a self-titled, intensely played crush achievement. The collection would set into movement some of the records Mariah had the option to break during her profession (most back to back #1 singles, first female soloist to go directly to #1, a #1 hit in every year during the 90s). Her prosperity was established with Grammys for Best New Artist and Best Female Vocalist. Mariahs ever-significant sophomore collection (which appears to represent the moment of truth various craftsman see Hootie ; The Blowfish) neglected to frustrate. Feelings had three successes and sold very well. Music Box would follow, alongside Daydream, Butterfly, and Heartbreaker. Evidently, the record organizations are similarly as satisfied as the American open. After a to some degree fierce end to her agreement with Columbia (Mariah needed to pay in excess of 10 million to escape the arrangement), Mariah marked an arrangement with Virgin Records that pays her 23.5 million dollars a record. Out of the account studio, Mariah isolated from Mottola in 1997, and the two would separate from a year later. Mariah got right, dating New York Yankees star Derek Jeter. Yet, the relationship failed and Mariah has kept ensuing excursions out of the press. Words/Pages : 457/24

Congratulations to the winners of 2016 Public Policy Challenge Grant COLUMBIA UNIVERSITY - SIPA Admissions Blog

Congratulations to the winners of 2016 Public Policy Challenge Grant COLUMBIA UNIVERSITY - SIPA Admissions Blog SIPA seeks proposals from students for innovative projects that use digital technology and data to improve the global urban environment. Affordable and clean energy accessâ€"opportunities for refugees to provide language servicesâ€"reliable access to the Internetâ€"these are the goals of the winners of this year’s  Dean’s Public Policy Challenge Grant competition, announced by SIPA at the 2016  #StartupColumbia Festival on April 29. The annual competition invites students to propose innovative projects and prototypes that use technology and/or data to solve important urban problems. The winning teams were allocated a total of $65,000 in prize money to support the implementation of their projects. The first-place team,  Azimuth Solar, aims to make clean energy affordable for low income off-grid consumers in West Africa. Its members are Nthabiseng Mosia MIA ’16, Eric Silverman MIA ’16, and Alexandre Tourre MPA ’16. The second-place team,  NaTakallam, is developing an online platform that pairs students learning Arabic with displaced Syrians who provide Arabic practice opportunities. Members are Aline Sara MIA ’14, Reza Rahnema MIA ’14, Niko Efstathiou MIA ’17, Aimee Wenyue Chen MIA ’16, and Sherif Kamal MPA ’15. The third-place team, CIGONN, aims to develop an Internet device sharing system for students in developing countries. Members are Olivier Bennaim MPA ’16 and Columbia Engineering student Alexandre Zeitoun. The current sequenceâ€"the third since the program was inaugurated in Spring 2014â€"began in September 2015, when 10 student teams were chosen as semifinalists from more than 30 applications. While participating groups must include at least one SIPA student, they are encouraged to blend students from different disciplines and schools at Columbia University. Want to participate in your own Public Policy Challenge Grant?  Confirm your seat in the Master of International Affairs program today! Each semi-finalist team received seed funding and a wealth of programmatic support to aid in the development of their ideas. They met with a panel of industry advisors, participated in a series of boot camp-style seminars on topics such as financial planning, legal issues, and design thinking. After three months of refining their project models and working with potential partners, funders, and users, semifinalist teams presented to competition judges in February 2016. Five finalist teams, selected by a committee of Columbia University faculty and technology entrepreneurs chaired by Dean  Merit E. Janow, then received additional support funding and two more months to continue to develop their project or prototype. The five finalistsâ€"which included Concourse Markets and Nansen in addition to the three winnersâ€"presented the final version of their ideas on April 28. â€" Lindsay Fuller MPA ’16 Photos, clockwise from left: Azimuth Solar (from left, Tourre, Mosia, Silverman); NaTakallam (from left, Efstathiou, Sara, Kamal, Chen); Bennaim and Zeitoun of CIGONN flank Dean Janow.

The role of religion in human ethicality - Free Essay Example

Sample details Pages: 5 Words: 1485 Downloads: 3 Date added: 2019/03/22 Category Religion Essay Level High school Topics: Faith Essay Did you like this example? In the eighteenth century America was obsessed with ethicality; people lived by the rules of religion. Although, who is to say what is ethical? It is another being who determines ethicality and it is only in accordance with their rules, you must conform to their standards of right and wrong, thus the question is â€Å" Whose ethical views are most important to follow? From the making of America religion has played the biggest role in human ethicality, with the Bible being our handbook. However, in a time of evolutionary discoveries such as Darwinism, Emily Dickinson questions the idea that conventional faith, such as Christianity, is the belief in ethicality or a truth. It is evident that Dickinson declines the customary religious ideas of truth, but this does not mean declined faith. By exploring Emily Dickinsons lifestyle and experiences through both her biography and her poetic works I aim to argue that it is not religion Dickinson doesnt conform to but societys standards of ethics through religion and she instead follows her own faith, in truth. Don’t waste time! Our writers will create an original "The role of religion in human ethicality" essay for you Create order Dickinson instructs the reader to, Tell all the Truth but tell it slant (1) because ?The Truth must dazzle gradually / Or every man be blind (7-8). She is stating that people have the ethical obligation to tell the truth, yet she warns her reader to tell it at an angle because the truth can be too much for peoples weak perceptions to cope with, and you must protect the people from the pure and blinding light of truth. Some may infer, the truth Dickinson speaks of, is the truth of reality or facts that reject the notion of faith, but perhaps she is really referring to personal truth that is idiosyncratic. She wants the reader to tell the truth but their own truth, as she does, she wants them not feel pressured to conform to the truth that is placed on them by society and religion. Emily Dickinsons audience and unique secluded lifestyle helped her find her truth and which played a major role in her writings. With never having the intentions of being published or the need for fame, as she suggests in, Im Nobody! Who are you? her writings are exclusively her own truth. She says, how dreary â€Å" to be â€Å" Somebody! / How public â€Å" like a Frog, here she is pointing out that anonymity is preferred over public recognition and privacy is a thing of luxury. Dickinson inherited Puritan traits of simplicity, practicality, and a discerning observation of the inner self, yet her communication with religion was much more distant than her God-fearing forefathers would have dreamt. Thanks to her familys wealth and understanding Dickinson was permitted to escape the pressures of society and the role most women were required to play at the time. Through this Dickinson was able to do the things she wanted to do, she never married or barred any children, and she never had to tailor her writings in order to succumb to the needs and wants of American society, allowing herself to pursue her truth. The Bedford Anthology of American Literature states, Dickinson resolutely refused to join or attend church, although perhaps she was more certain of God, her own God, than her forefathers where of theirs. Some keep the Sabbath going to Church / I keep it, staying at Home. While Dickinson doesnt attend church like the rest of her community she claims she still practices faith, her faith, at home. In the end of this work she announces, So instead of getting to Heaven, at last / Im going, all along. In many of her other works Dickinson bears doubt in religion, claims she does not understand the conventional God, or have faith in his ways, but with this line she conveys that she does not fear him. This belief grants Dickinson to be a rare individual, especially of her time, affording her inner freedom and self-truth. On the exterior Dickinson seems backwards, unsocial and almost awkward although she truly holds great power when she answers only to herself, and this confidence is preced ent in her works. Dickinson dwells in possibility, opening herself up to new interpretations, as each moment in time becomes a new subject of interest. Alongside this her writings can become contradictory, specifically when she writes using the theme of death. I Hear a Fly Buzz â€Å" When I Died, presents an idea of death in which there is no eternal resting place or afterlife. With Blue â€Å" uncertain stumbling Buzz She depicts herself lying with a fly buzzing around waiting to do his part in the cycle of life and enviably eat her rotting corps. Between the light â€Å" and me / And then the Windows failed â€Å" and then / I could not see to see, here Dickinson wraps up her feelings of death with the belief that the process of death leads to nothingness and the soul that is believed to be found in the eyes fails and dies with her. In comparison her poem, Because I Could Not Stop for Death, she represents death as a spiritual journey to eternity. The Carriage held but just ourselves / And Immortality, In lines five through thirteen she describes this journey and lists things the speaker passes by, We passed the Fields of Gazing Grain / We passed the Setting Sun. The speaker in the carriage transcends and goes to a space where time seems not to exist; its equitably continuous. In this poem death is not something to be feared but instead a relaxing ride. Unlike in I Hear a Fly Buzz â€Å" When I Died, this work romanticizes death and makes the reader feel at peace with death. While these two examples seem to contradict Dickinsons views of death this does not mean she isnt speaking her truth. Dickinson writes poems to capture a moment in her time of life. As people grow and experience new things their views alter to fit the new moment. This might make some feel uneasy, that Emily Dickinson doesnt exhibit ethos in her writings, but when in context to her overall theme of truth, she does indeed stay true to her truth, whatever that may be. In addition she brings to light the truth of the human thought. Our beliefs change; Dickinsons world, like many others, is confused and disrupted thus she is incapable to come to any certain conclusions and that is okay. Rather than be exclusively for faith or fact, Dickinson incorporates both faith and fact or religion and science into her truth. She doesnt dismiss religion entirely because she is aware of the importance of faith. Instead, she finds a balance of the two, like we observe in her short four lined poem which reads, Faith is a fine invention / For Gentlemen who see! / But Microscopes are prudent / In an Emergency! Dickinson, at first, seems to be mocking the Church because she claims God could not really help someone in a true emergency. Faith is a good idea but holds no true power when it comes to science, you cannot solely rely on faith. However, by her expressing, faith is a fine invention, she does recognize that it is comforting to have faith and even though it might not physically amount to science, it is soothing to possess. In a time period when many people chose faith over fact Dickinson, caring for the people she wrote to, wanted it to be known that in order for real help you c ant remain caught up in prayer, you need to also seek professional help. We can see examples of her balancing these two elements in not only her words but within the format she writes in as well. Dickinson writes many of her poems in a hymn meter rhyme scheme, which is used in religious texts and songs such as Amazing Grace, and Christmas Carol. A model of this scheme is portrayed in her poem A Bird came down the Walk. By her following this traditional writing form but then altering the punctuation and capitalizations she does not completely conform to the straightforward rubric a hymn meter rhyme scheme is supposed to obtain. These modifications may seem insignificant but they speak loudly. In all of the works she applies this format to she is allowing herself to express her faith and truth. As Emily Dickinson ages she experiences detrimental events such as, the civil war, the death of her close friends and family, and also with her personal health problems pertaining to her eyesight and kidneys. These events altered her perception of faith and in her later life she became angry at the absence of God. She shows this transition in her work. After the start of her seclusion in 1862 she writes, Of Course†I prayed† And did God Care? In this work she expresses her fury with God, which in turn allows the reader to see she undoubting confesses her belief in faith.

Foreign Intervention On Democracy And Democratization

I. Introduction With regards to democratic theory, this literature review hopes to determine the effects of foreign intervention on democracy and democratization. It will focus on whether foreign interventions result in increased or decreased levels of democracy within target states. This conversation is important because it will hopefully determine whether interventions will be successful in the growth of democracy in the future or whether or not interventions are needed as a mechanism for democratization at all. II. Literature Review and Analysis Democracy has been in a leading position in the world since it began to gain popularity during the beginning of the 20th century (Fukuyama, 2006). Because it expanded through coercive means, it has meant that democracy continues to extend across the world. When communism began to decline, the West was able to extend democracy into several places both openly and discretely in order to encourage favorable political systems. The nature of the expansion of democracy has been criticized in terms of its legitimacy and viability in developing strong and sustainable governments and benefits to the people of the target states. Most scholars say that intervention cannot lead to a stable democracy, Pickering and Peceny for instance provide a bleak picture by portraying that in the 50 years from 1946-1996, 84% of states going through democratization were not through intervention. Enterline and Greig (2008), argue that 30% of attempts madeShow MoreRelatedThe Debate For Democracy During The Middle East1013 Words   |  5 PagesIn the debate for democracy in the middle east, many scholars suggest that Islamists are the main obstacle to overcome. By the last decade, Islamist parties and candidates have engaged in elections throughout in about eight Arab countries with almost modest results. Thus, Islamist may have a heavy degree of support among most of the consitunets who agree with anti-regime sentiments. At the same time, ruling elites also give overwhelming support to maintain security and other privileges. There areRead MoreThroughout history, mankind has often ventured to spread its faith to the non-believers of the2900 Words   |  12 PagesThroughout history, mankind has often ventured to spread its faith to the non-believers of the world. In the modern world, religion has been replaced by democracy, liberalism and capitalism and the United States as â€Å"the leader of the free world† has taken it upon herself to convert the rest of the world. Historically , the United States has preferred to operate in isolation, only getting involved in North and South American affairs. This paradigm shifted after World War II, when the United StatedRead MoreThe End of the Cold War Essay1842 Words   |  8 PagesUnited States foreign policy. For years, the United States supported tyrannical dictators in return for stable anti-communist government receptive to United States interests. 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Legalizing Infant Euthanasia Free Essays

Since the evolution of man, infants have been born with severe illnesses. These infants may be able to survive due to advancing technologies, but are left with possible and probable defects. Many infants will die even though they are being treated because they are not equipped to sustain life. We will write a custom essay sample on Legalizing Infant Euthanasia or any similar topic only for you Order Now These circumstances have led to the debatable issue of infant euthanasia, or mercy killing, to allow these babies an end to their suffering, and die peacefully. While many people feel that euthanasia is murder, infant euthanasia should be legalized to spare terminally ill newborns of long, painful deaths, and to spare them of possible life-long disabilities. Euthanasia is said to be morally wrong by pro-life groups. They point out that infant’s may not be suffering while they are dying. They also emphasize that advances in pain management make it possible to relieve all or almost all pain. These people say that children should be saved at all costs, no matter how great the disability may be. They accentuate that the infants may be saved due to advancing technology, and that there are also therapy treatments for their possible disabilities. However, in considering whether or not to treat a newborn, the main goal should be to spare infants of long, painful deaths. Most experts believe that the primary answer to this issue is to follow what’s in the child’s best interests. If his mental and physical handicaps are overwhelming and it would be inhumane to prolong his life, then treatment should be withheld or withdrawn. After all, saving an infant for a life of suffering is hardly a humane and loving act. An infant was born with a skin condition similar to third-degree burns over almost all of its body for which there was no cure. The baby’s mother was young, unwed, and indigent. Providing basic nursing care caused tearing away of the skin. The infant could not be fed orally because of blistering in the mouth and throat. Any movement of the infant seemed to cause it pain. Even with intensive care its life expectancy, at most, was believed to be days. It would have been reasonable, merciful, and justifiable to have shortened the baby’s dying by an intended direct action chosen by the parent and the neonatologists. In cases relevantly like this, it is not immoral or morally wrong to intend and effect a merciful end to a life that, all things considered, will be meaningless to the one who lives it and an unwarranted burden for others to support. Among the women who work in the Stanford intensive care nursery, several said that if they were to have an extremely premature baby, they would not want it to be treated aggressively. One woman said that if she knew what was about to happen she would stay away from a hospital with a sophisticated intensive care unit. Others say they would make sure they were under the care of a doctor who would not press the extremes on survival. Many parents would make a similar choice but are not given the opportunity. It has been called a violation of God’s commandment not to kill. â€Å"†¦ in effect, the demand that physicians fight death at all costs is a demand that they play God. It is a demand that they conquer nature, thereby declaring themselves more powerful than God’s order. † Perhaps the ideal of conquest will be replaced by the ideal of living in agreement with nature. The most benign technology works in harmony with natural causes rather than intruding on them. The â€Å"Baby Doe† rule is a list of guidelines stating that a baby should be treated aggressively with very few exceptions. These exceptions to the rule are when â€Å"the infant is chronically and irreversibly comatose†, when the treatment would merely prolong dying, not be effective in ameliorating or correcting all of the infant’s life-threatening conditions, or otherwise be futile in terms of the survival of the infant†, and when â€Å"treatment would be virtually futile in terms of the survival of the infant and the treatment itself under such circumstances would be inhumane†¦ This policy rather loudly states that parents and professionals may not consider the salvageable infant’s life prospects no matter how harmful they may appear. A graphic illustration of the potential harm in the treatment of a handicapped infant is provided by Robert and Peggy Stinson’s account of their son Andrew who was born at a gestational age of 24 1/2 weeks and a weight of 800 grams. He was placed on a respirator against his parents’ wishes and without their consent, and remained dependent on the respirator for five months, until he was finally permitted to die. The seemingly endless list of Andrew’s afflictions, almost all of which were iatrogenic, reveals how disastrous this hospitalization was. Baby Andrew was, in effect saved by the respirator to die five ling, painful, and expensive months later of the respirator’s side effects. â€Å"†¦ the physicians who treated him violated an ancient and honored Hippocratic principle of professional ethics,`Primum non nocere’, First do no harm. As shown in the examples above, infants that are treated aggressively will die more slowly and painfully than if they were allowed a quick and peaceful death. By using aggressive treatment on severely ill infants, many are â€Å"saved† to live with life-long disabilities. To demand that physicians use intensive care technology beyond the point when it is likely to assist with a patient’s problems, as the Baby Doe regulations require, is to demand that they violate their professional commitment to do no harm. To argue that infants must be treated aggressively, no matter how great their disabilities, is to insist that the nursery become a torture chamber and that infants unequipped to live be deprived of their natural right to die. Helen Harrison, author of â€Å"The Premature Baby Book: a Parent’s Guide to Coping and Caring in the First Years†, wrote about how families are at the mercy of an accelerating life-support technology and of their physicians’ personal philosophies and motives concerning its use. She wrote after interviewing numerous parents and physicians in heartbreaking situations of delivery-room and nursery crises, â€Å"I sympathize with physicians’ concerns when parents request that there be no heroic measures. However, I sympathize infinitely more with families forced to live with the consequences of decisions made by others. Above all, I sympathize with infants saved for a lifetime of suffering. † The decisions involving the care of hopelessly ill and disabled newborns should be left to the traditional processes, to parents and physicians who do the best they can under difficult circumstances. B. D. Cohen, author of â€Å"Hard Choices† wrote, â€Å"Until such time as society is willing to pay the bill for truly humane institutions of twenty-four-hour home care for all such infants, to offer than death or living death, shouldn’t these decisions be left to those who will have to live with them? † There is a disease called Spina Bifida which affects between six thousand and eleven thousand newborns in the United States each year. The children are alive but require urgent surgery to prevent their handicap to intensify and bring about death. Paralysis, bladder and bowel incontinence, hydrocephalus or water on the brain are all part of the child’s future. Severe mental retardation, requiring total custodial care, is the likely fate of 10% of the 15% of the children. Some 10% of the children will die prior to reaching the first grade, in spite of aggressive medical care. These infants, incapable of making their own decisions, deserve to be spared the pain and suffering of such severe diseases and illnesses. Although some claim that euthanasia is the killing of a human, infant euthanasia should be legalized to spare severely ill babies of drawn-out, excruciating deaths, and to spare them of the possible defects from their illnesses. Infants continue to be born with such disabling illnesses daily. Many parents are left burdened throughout their lifetimes. They may not be prepared to provide the round-the-clock treatment that is needed. New York State should bring about peace by legalizing euthanasia, and end the suffering for all people intimately involved in situations described previously. How to cite Legalizing Infant Euthanasia, Essay examples

Wealth Corrupts - an Analysis of the Great Gatsby free essay sample

As Henry Fielding once said, Money is the fruit of evil, as often as the root of it. (Henry Fielding). This is entirely true in the novel The Great Gatsby, where money is the leading factor in all that happens during the course of the story. The novel, The Great Gatsby, a very profound work of literature, extends on many levels and through various themes in order to provide readers with the central idea that wealth corrupts. Daisy Buchanan is the first character in the novel that has evidently been corrupted by wealth. Daisy, born and raised into an enormously wealthy family, never had to work for anything in life; anything she wanted was immediately given to her. Later in life she married Tom Buchanan also extravagantly wealthy who gave her a string of pearls valued at three hundred and fifty thousand dollars (76). This life of wealth inevitably led to a life of boredom for Daisy. We will write a custom essay sample on Wealth Corrupts an Analysis of the Great Gatsby or any similar topic specifically for you Do Not WasteYour Time HIRE WRITER Only 13.90 / page Her life was so boring, in fact, that she audibly wonders Whatll [she] do with [herself] this afternoon†¦ and the day after that, and [for] the next thirty years (118). The feelings and the lives of others hold no influence over Daisy. Even her own daughter, Pammy, holds no meaning for her. She views her daughter as a mere toy, an object to show off to help boost her own image. When she hit and killed Myrtle Wilson, and when Gatsby died, she did show any emotion towards either of their deaths. Daisy, best illustrated as a careless person, smashed up things and creatures and then retreated back into [her] money [and her] vast carelessness and let other people clean up the mess [she] had made (145). Daisy only cared about protecting herself, as people in her position are wont to do. Tom Buchanan, Daisys husband, has also been corrupted by the wealth maintained in his family. He is never content with what he has, and as a result of this he has numerous affairs; of course he gives no thought as to how Daisy might feel about this. During the timeline of the novel, he has an affair with Myrtle Wilson, but he does not actually care about her either. This is evident when Tom Buchanan broke her nose with his open hand (37). When Gatsby declares his love for Daisy, Tom breaks out into pure hypocrisy; bashing Gatsby for having an affair with his wife, tating that [He supposed] that the latest thing was to sit back and let Mr. Nobody from Nowhere make love to [his] wife (130). He then emphasizes that Gatsby is a nobody by revealing that Gatsby was a bootlegger and an inheritor of new money. He also stated that he loved Daisy and although Once in a while [he] may go off on a spree and make a fool of [himself], [he] always [comes] back, and in [his] heart [he loves] her all the time (131). All throughout the novel it is shown that Tom has the same problem with empathy that Daisy does, the problem of careless people. Toms total apathy towards other people is a perfect reflection of the careless lifestyle that he leads. Even all of the major secondary characters have fallen under the influence of money. The famous golfer, Jordan Baker accused of moving her golf ball to a better position in the semi-finals of a golf tournament wasnt able to endure being at a disadvantage and, given this unwillingness, [Nick supposed] she had begun dealing in subterfuges†¦ in order to keep that cool, insolent smile turned to the world (58). She lies to protect her image knowing that if she gets caught she can use her money to protect herself. Gatsbys friend and fellow bootlegger, Meyer Wolfsheim, [played] with the faith of fifty million people (73), fixing the 1918 World Series just to earn some quick cash. All of this goes to show that, although people may think that they have instinctive values and virtues, money can easily corrupt anyone. The miserable characters in The Great Gatsby were all victim to the tantalizing grasp that money and the power and carelessness that comes along with it—had on them.

Bilingual Education

Language Policy in Australia In Australia, the issues connected with the language policy are discussed both at the federal and state levels. Thus, special language programmes which are worked out in states develop along with the federal Australian Language and Literacy Policy. According to this programme, the most widely spread language in Australia is English, and the literacy programme is realised in relation to the norms of the Australian English Standard.Advertising We will write a custom essay sample on Bilingual Education specifically for you for only $16.05 $11/page Learn More However, Australia is the multi-cultural and multi-lingual country that is why much attention is paid to the development of the minorities’ languages in the country. From this point, National Statement for Languages Education in Australian Schools regulates the realisation of the language policy according to the English language (which is not recognized as an official one) and the languages of minorities in the country (Ingram, 2000). The expansion of English among the Australians is the result of the definite historical events. Nevertheless, in spite of the fact, the majority of the population speaks English, there are a lot of persons who are immigrants or have their origins in the other countries, and they speak the languages of their communities. Today, the Australian government and the local authorities in states concentrate on preserving the diversity of the languages in the country and support the educational programmes according to which two or more languages are studied at school. The multi-lingual approach is considered as effective from the point of the political, economic, and cultural strategic development of the country. Thus, the bilingual competence is discussed as the contemporary tendency in Australia which should be realised with the help of definite national and state programmes (Liddicoat, 2005). In this situation, the Engli sh language is the primary language in Australia, and the other languages are discussed as the languages of minorities. Education Programmes According to the peculiarities of the bilingual situation in the Italian-speaking community in Melbourne (Victoria), two-way immersion programmes are the most appropriate variant for realizing there.Advertising Looking for essay on education? Let's see if we can help you! Get your first paper with 15% OFF Learn More To provide the academic excellence and the high level of the students’ proficiency in the primary language and the language of minority, it is necessary to follow such principles as the equal status of the both languages at class, the usage of the techniques which make instructions comprehensible for the two groups of students, and the focus not only on cross-lingual peculiarities but also on the cross-cultural ones. Implementing the two-way immersion programmes, it is important to concentrate on the fact that a ccording to different variations of the programme used in such countries as the USA and Canada, it is possible to regulate the percentage of using L1 and L2 at class. The most effective variant for achieving the high results in the students’ proficiency is the equal focus on the both languages in order to avoid the possibility to limit this or that language. In this case, the teacher’s code switching is caused by the necessity of using the instructions in L1 or L2, and the students’ code switching is caused by the peculiarities of reacting to these instructions (Gomez, Freeman, Freeman, 2005). Depending on the characteristic features of the programme, it is significant to avoid the influence of the peculiarities of one language on another. It is important to pay attention to the equal development of the competence in the oral and written languages which should be assessed with the help of definite tests (Bedore Pena, 2008). The assessment of the proficiency in the both languages is the important requirement for the programme. To be the effective bilingual teacher, it is necessary to have the excellent competence in the both languages and to follow the two-way immersion programmes strictly. References Bedore, L. M., Pena, E. D. (2008). Assessment of bilingual children for identification of language impairment: current findings and implications for practice. International Journal of Bilingual Education and Bilingualism, 11(1), 1-29. Gomez, L., Freeman, D., Freeman, Y. (2005). Dual language education: A promising 50-50 model. Bilingual Research Journal, 29(1), 145–164.Advertising We will write a custom essay sample on Bilingual Education specifically for you for only $16.05 $11/page Learn More Ingram, D. E. (2000). Language policy and language education in Australia. Web. Liddicoat, A. (2005). Culture for language learning in Australian language-in-education policy. Australian Review of Applied Linguis tics, 28(2), 28-43. This essay on Bilingual Education was written and submitted by user Alia K. to help you with your own studies. You are free to use it for research and reference purposes in order to write your own paper; however, you must cite it accordingly. You can donate your paper here. Bilingual Education

Free Essays on The Unknown Citizen

â€Å"The Unknown Citizen† W. H. Auden’s poem entitled â€Å"The Unknown Citizen† is a portrayal of a conflict between individualism and government control. â€Å"The Unknown Citizen† is a government’s view of the perfect modern man in an unrealistic society. In â€Å"The Unknown Citizen† the government has manipulated human intelligence to the point that they have control over everyone’s lives and minds. The motive behind the portrayal of an equal society is that it will eliminate hatred, envy and war. While this proves true, the numerous side effects such as loss of identity, lack of originality, and loss of personal feelings develop. The satiric society depicted in â€Å"The Unknown Citizen† is the authors attempt to ridicule a political system that tends to depersonalize its citizens and constantly strives to create equality. The attempt to create an equal society to the extreme makes many governments more like a dictatorship or communist system rather than a democracy. The society portrayed in the poem takes the notion of perfection and equality to the extreme. In the poem Auden uses sarcasm to express an obsessive and mindless state that only knows its citizens by numbers and letters, and evaluates their worth with statistics. The ideal citizen is supposed to be â€Å"One against whom there was no official complaint [and] in everything he did he served the community†(5). The idea that a perfect modern man is not meant to have any complaints and to serve the community, suggests that the state requires it’s citizens to work for the benefit of the state, not the individual. The fact that no thing should be questioned shows the obedience to the state that is needed to maintain the utopian society that the poem discusses. During the time period that â€Å"The Unknown Citizen† was written, in the late 1930’s, Americans were issued Social Security cards (similar to Canadian Social Insurance Numbers), each with a personalized ... Free Essays on The Unknown Citizen Free Essays on The Unknown Citizen â€Å"The Unknown Citizen† W. H. Auden’s poem entitled â€Å"The Unknown Citizen† is a portrayal of a conflict between individualism and government control. â€Å"The Unknown Citizen† is a government’s view of the perfect modern man in an unrealistic society. In â€Å"The Unknown Citizen† the government has manipulated human intelligence to the point that they have control over everyone’s lives and minds. The motive behind the portrayal of an equal society is that it will eliminate hatred, envy and war. While this proves true, the numerous side effects such as loss of identity, lack of originality, and loss of personal feelings develop. The satiric society depicted in â€Å"The Unknown Citizen† is the authors attempt to ridicule a political system that tends to depersonalize its citizens and constantly strives to create equality. The attempt to create an equal society to the extreme makes many governments more like a dictatorship or communist system rather than a democracy. The society portrayed in the poem takes the notion of perfection and equality to the extreme. In the poem Auden uses sarcasm to express an obsessive and mindless state that only knows its citizens by numbers and letters, and evaluates their worth with statistics. The ideal citizen is supposed to be â€Å"One against whom there was no official complaint [and] in everything he did he served the community†(5). The idea that a perfect modern man is not meant to have any complaints and to serve the community, suggests that the state requires it’s citizens to work for the benefit of the state, not the individual. The fact that no thing should be questioned shows the obedience to the state that is needed to maintain the utopian society that the poem discusses. During the time period that â€Å"The Unknown Citizen† was written, in the late 1930’s, Americans were issued Social Security cards (similar to Canadian Social Insurance Numbers), each with a personalized ...

Attitude Towards Work And Love Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 250 words

Attitude Towards Work And Love - Essay Example For the past 150 years, our attitude work and love has changed drastically. Initially, workers in their forties were considered wiser and more experienced, thus earning more as they age. With the most difficult jobs, their decisions were well-respected and honored. On one hand, those who were in their twenties were believed to lack such wisdom and strength since they are inexperienced.However, at the turn of the century, a shift directing attention to the physical attribution initiated the notion that middle-aged workers are less organized and stubborn as they are confronted by the decline in their mental and physical strength. Employers nowadays hire younger workers because they have fresher ideas since they believe â€Å"aging† employees become tolerant to change and inclined to â€Å"old† practices.Similarly, relationships have changed particularly on issues of ‘manhood’ and fidelity. To reaffirm their masculinity at mid-life, men resortedtokeep in shape and build muscles and getas much sex as possible.   Men who get involved with other women are now admired in the society more than those who remain celibate, instead of being mocked.Sleeping with other women other than his wife, particularly procreating even outside marriage isnow envied by the many.

Sap (Enterprise resource planning) Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2250 words

Sap (Enterprise resource planning) - Essay Example The ERP system enables the company to communicate with its customers, suppliers and business partners easily through the system. There is standardization of every procedure and employees throughout the organization can easily communicate with each other. Also, because of standardization the processes become simpler and easier to understand. Every vendor had its own practice of implementing an ERP system. The software developers have introduced some practices, through their experience that are the best. These are then known as the best practices. These best practices maximize efficiency and help the ERP Company carry out a transaction in the best possible manner. These best practices are mainly beneficial for the larger organizations or when the process is a commodity or also when there are compliance requirements. The best practice modification is one of the options that are given to the customer when he installs the system. After the Enterprise Resource Planning system has been implemented, the organizations usually have four functional departments, mainly, advertising and sales, human resources, accounting and finance and supply chain management. These are the four basic functional areas of the ERP system. Within a company, the ERP system is mainly utilized by these four departments. These four departments are vertically and horizontally integrated because of the ERP system. 8. What is management's role regarding ERP systems The management's role in the ERP system is to comply with the process and to be willing to share information. The management should not regard this as a threat. They should lead their employees to adopt the system as soon as possible and integrate it into their everyday use. As the ERP system is useful for the company and a move towards the future, the management in no way should hinder the process. The managers should take a horizontal view of the company this would help them be comfortable with the integration achieved from the system. 9. Why do some companies have more success with ERP than others Some companies are more successful at implementing the system because they are motivated from the beginning. These companies want to improve efficiency and maintain a competitive advantage. The companies which fail in implementing the system do so because, the employees don't see the need for the new system and are comfortable with the system that is currently being used. Sometimes companies have very high expectations and when the ERP system does not fulfill these they are disappointed. Lack of training and knowledge hinders them to accept the system. There may also be technical difficulties and the basic data input into the system may be inaccurate. L2

Analysis of Refugee Protection Mechanisms

Analysis of Refugee Protection Mechanisms INTRODUCTION On any given day, thousands of individuals including women and children from all parts of the world are forced to flee their homes for fear of persecution or to escape the dangers of armed conflicts and other refugee-creating force making claims for refugee status in foreign countries. If the key in defining who a refugee is, should not be the reason for leaving ones country but rather the reason for being unable or unwilling to return to it, then in contemporary international system, the problems of border control and trans-boundary flows of asylum seekers are ever relevant to states as well as to the academic researchers in the field of International Relations. After the crises in the management of refugees during World War II, international bodies, primarily United Nations, has allocated significant proportions of its attention and its resources to build up and develop norms of refugee protection as part of the international system of governance. The primary goal of the collective attempts was to lay down the basics for refugee protection in cases of political turmoil, civil or national wars and ethnic conflicts. These attempts, though, were not only the results of the dramatic event of World War II as hinted above, but also accompanied the development of Human Rights regimes at the global level since the late years of the 1940s. It is in this context that the Convention related to the status of Refugees had been drafted and was released on 28th July, 1951. Additional international document in the field is the 1967 Protocol Relating to the status of Refugees known as the New York Protocol. According to the UNHCR 2008 Global Trends report, there were some 42 million forcibly displaced people worldwide at the end of 2008. This includes 15.2 million refugees, 827000 asylum-seekers (pending cases) and 26 million internally displaced person (IDPs).[1] The legal obligations requiring that receiving states not return these refugees to situations of serious human rights abuse derive from international law, but does the so-called international refugee law clearly determine how governments respond to involuntary migration? If the answer is yes then why do states pay lip service to the important of honouring the right to seek asylum, but in practice devote significant resources to keep refugees away from their borders.[2] My work will attempt to evaluate the international refugee system so as to discover whether the norms in the system for refugee protection constitute an international regime, as defined by international relations literature in order to show that if it is a regim e, then states are no longer afforded the full freedom of action and decision making under the doctrine of sovereignty and that they have a certain level of obligation to abide by regime rules and help in the upkeep of the regime. International regime is increasingly in a state of crisis. While armed conflict and human rights abuse continue to force individuals and groups to flee, many governments are retrenching from their legal duty to provide refugees with the protection they require. In this work, I will attempt to explain among other things, refugee laws increasingly marginal role in defining the international response to refugee protection. This will lead me to suggest the basic principles upon which I believe reformulation of international refugee protection mechanisms should be predicated. Refugee law must be reaffirmed, bolstered and perhaps reconceived to respond to this serious deterioration in the rights and security of refugees. This thesis will evaluate the international legal mechanisms for refugee protection. Its premise is that refugee law is a mode of human rights protection. The paper will address the legal definition of a refugee, refugee rights and the institutional and procedural structur es through which claims for protection are evaluated. It will clearly define and apply contemporary legal standards, within an international and domestic legal context, and subject the present domestic and international regime to critical scrutiny. TOPIC AIM AND OBJECTIVE: The aim of this work is to closely look at the international refugee protection system that is made up of the various conventions, treaties and regional agreements, and domestic refugee policies, in order to determine whether or not the system constitute an international regime. The purpose of trying to discover whether these mechanisms for refugee protection do or do not constitute an international regime is to show that the members of the regime (i.e. signatory states to the 1951 Convention and 1967 Protocol, regional agreements and those states that have enshrined the Convention in to their domestic asylum policies) thus have their actions restricted considerably by the very fact that they are members of the regime. They are no longer allowed the full freedom and decision-making afforded to them under the doctrine of state sovereignty. Regime plays important role in the international system in bringing about co-operation and stability. In my analysis of regime theory, I will attem pt a highlight of the role the refugee protection regime plays within the international system as a whole and discuss whether the roles are changing. THESIS QUESTION: In lieu with the above, this paper will attempt to address the following thesis questions: Do the contemporary refugee protection mechanisms in the international system constitute an international regime? If the system of protection is an international regime, what kind of regime does it represent? What are its characteristics and how is it important? How are restrictive measures adopted by states affecting the international protection regime? Specifically, do they account for the change within or of, the regime, or a weakening of the regime itself? What is the role of the regime within the international system as a whole, and how is this role evolving especially in the face of states use of restrictive measures? THEORETICAL FRAMEWORK The study will use the Rationalist approach to regime theory. The mainstream rationalist theories of (interest- based) neo-liberalism and (power-based) neo-realism are the basis for the theoretical framework for this write-up. The focus on neoliberal or interest based theory of regime represents the fact that it has been extraordinarily influential in the past (two) decades and have come to represent the mainstream approach to analyzing international institutions.[3] The work will however not be limited to these two theories. In a situation where millions of innocent lives are at stake each year and states come together to attempt to solve the existing problems and potentially stop it from occurring in the future, the researcher believes that it is not rational to assume that state action is driven by self interest and power politics alone. In contrast, state behavior within the international refugee protection regime largely comes from humanitarian concerns for people in need and fr om respect for international human rights law and international humanitarian law. It is in this light that the thesis will also consider the use of constructivist paradigm so as to show the importance of international norms, rules and principles, both within the regime itself and the role they play within the domestic asylum policy. SCOPE AND LIMITATION OF STUDY The work will aim at addressing the contemporary mechanisms in the international system for the protection of refugees focusing on post WWII onwards to current from historical perspective. While looking at the restrictive measures that states across the entire international system practice, the researcher will not undertake a close examination of any specific state within the international system of protection, but rather would address the system as a whole in an attempt to define and analyze its contents, discuss its importance in the international system and analyze the various changes that may be occurring within it and how these may affect the regime. RESEARCH METHODOLOGY The methodological framework of this research is a qualitative one. This study will use interpretivism as its main research philosophy. A descriptive research intends to present facts concerning the nature and status of a situation, as it exists at the time of the study (Creswell, 1994). It is also concerned with relationships and practices that exist, beliefs and process that are on-going, effects that are being felt or trends that are developing. In addition, such approach tries to describe present conditions, events or systems based on the impressions or reactions of the respondents of the research (Creswell, 1994). Unlike quantitative research methods, which largely use a positivist epistemological position, qualitative research methods are based on an interpretivist epistemological position which stresses the understanding of the social world through an examination of the interpretation of that world by its participants. Interpretivism holds a different logic of research procedure from positivism. It seeks to understand human behavior, instead of just explaining it, which is what positivism seeks to do. The ontology of qualitative methods is constructivist, which contends that social phenomenon is continually being accomplished by social actors- they are produced through social interaction and are thus constantly being revised.[4] Basically, a descriptive research utilizes observations and surveys. It is for this particular reason that this approach was chosen by the researcher, whose intention is to gather first hand data. Moreover, this will allow for a flexible approach that when important new issues and questions arise at the duration of the study, a further investigation can be conducted. Another advantage is that with this approach, the research will be fast and somehow cost-effective. Aside from the qualitative finding method, secondary research will be conducted in this study. Sources in secondary research will include previous research reports, existing findings on journals and existing knowledge on books, newspapers, magazines and in the internet. The study will undertake an extensive review of the relevant literature on the subject of refugee flow, asylum policy, border control, state sovereignty, international humanitarian and human rights laws, and international refugee law. Basically, interpretation will be conducted which can account as qualitative in nature. STRUCTURE OF THE PAPER CHAPTER 1. INTRODUCTION In the first chapter, the researcher will introduce the aim of the thesis and formulates the research questions. The methodology of the thesis, a secondary research method and a qualitative, interpretivist, constructivist approaches will be outlined. Finally, the relevant theoretical and empirical literature will be reviewed. CHAPTER 2. THEORETICAL FRAMEWORK This chapter will present the rationalist approach to regime theory, including neoliberal and neorealist theories. These theories are chosen as the theoretical framework for the thesis and will be used to evaluate the international mechanisms for refugee protection so as to discover whether or not the system constitutes an international regime considered as legal. CHAPTER 3. THE INTERNATIONAL REFUGEE PROTECTION MECHANISMS: AN INTERNATIONAL REGIME? The third chapter will firstly provide the definitions of the key terms discussed in the work. Then, it will discuss the historical background of the system. It will further discuss the three major components of the refugee protection mechanisms in the international system namely: the legal documents (various conventions, treaties and regional agreements), the protection bodies (UN bodies, human rights organizations, among others) and finally domestic refugee policy. The chapter will finally show how these three levels of protection are integrated to form the refugee protection mechanism. CHAPTER 4. THE REFUGEE PROTECTION MECHANISMS AS AN INTERNATIONAL REGIME. In this chapter, the researcher will attempt a discussion of the various types and components of international regime that exist in the international system. This discussion is then related to the international protection system in an attempt to prove whether or not the system constitutes an international regime, and what type of regime it is. It evaluates the role of the regime and its importance within the international system as a whole. CHAPTER 5. RESTRICTIVE MEASURES In this chapter, a description of the various restrictive measures that states practice in order to cut down the influx of refugees across national borders is presented. The reasons for, and effect of, the restrictive policies are outlined. The concept of state sovereignty in relations to states reasons for, and justification of, the use of restrictive policies will also be discussed in this chapter. CHAPTER 6. RESTRICTIVE POLICIES AND REGIME CHANGE This chapter will outline the neoliberal, neorealist and constructivist explanation of regime transformation. It will attempt to prove whether or not the use of restrictive measures by member states represents a change within, or of, the regime, or a weakening of the international regime of refugee protection. It then discuss the potential impact of the regime weakening on the regime itself, as well as for member states and for the refugees. CHAPTER 7. CONCLUSION This is the conclusive part of the work. The researcher will address the research question and attempts to answer them by providing a summary of the main conclusions about the refugee regimes type, strength and importance, and the role that it plays in the international system and how this is evolving. LITERATURE REVIEW (ANNOTATED) From the initial review of literature, the researcher found resource materials including the following books, legal documents, journals and articles which will provide insights in to the study: ALTERNATIVES, Turkish Journal of International Relations. Volume 5, number 12, spring and summer 2006. Countries have different approaches to refugee protection system. This article can be very useful for the research as it shows that one of the major differences in approaches is the receiving and/or transit status vis-a-vis the refugee flow. Using four European countries- Belgium, Slovenia, Greece and Turkey as cases, the article examines refugee policies and makes an evaluation of differences in refugee protection system that each country develops. Donnelly, Jack, International Human Rights: A Regime Analysis in International Organization, Vol. 40, No. 3 (summer, 1986), 599-642. Donnellys article will be used in order to discover what type of regime the mechanism for protection in the international system is. It is useful for regime analysis. Creswell, J. W. 2003. Research Design: Quantitative, Qualitative, and Mixed Methods Approaches. SAGE. Thousand Oaks. USA. For the researchers choice of method of investigation, a reference to Creswells work on research design will provide great help. Guy S Goodwin-gill: (1996) The Refugee in International Law2nd Edition. Oxford University Press: Oxford. In this book, Goodwin-Gills provide an excellent overview of contemporary international refugee law, the three levels of protection, and the meanings and workings of the treaties and conventions on refugee protection. The book is widely recognized as the leading text on refugee law and as an excellent treatise of the international law on refugee, all the major problems are discussed in a general and lucid way. Hasenclever, Mayer and Rittberger (1997) Theories of International Regimes. Cambridge University Press: Cambridge. This book is very essential in the writing of this thesis as it provides an overview of the rationalist approach to regime theory. The book examines in detail the neoliberal and neorealists distinct views on the origins, robustness and consequences of international regimes. Hathaway, James (ed) (1997) Reconceiving International Refugee Law. Martinus Mijhoff Publishers: The Hague. Hathaways Book, a collection of essays by leading migration scholars, will be helpful in that it offers a response to the concerns of many states that refugee protection has become no more than a back door route to permanent immigration. It explores the potential for a shift to a robust and empowering system of temporary asylum, supported by a pragmatic system of guarantees to share both the cost and human responsibilities. Helmut Breitmeier (2008). The Legitimacy of International Regimes. Ashgate Publishing Limited. England. How legitimate are outcomes, outputs and impacts of international regimes? In this book, theoretical and empirical chapters balance one another. The book explores the question whether problem-solving in international regimes is effective and equitable and whether regimes contribute that sates comply with international norms. It also analyses whether non-state actors can improve the output and input-oriented legitimacy of global governance systems. Michelle Foster (2007) International Refugee Law and Social Economic Rights. Refugee from Deprivation. Cambridge University Press: Cambridge. A range of emerging refugee claims is beginning to challenge the boundaries of the refugee convention regime and question traditional distinction between economic migrants and political refugees. Fosters book will greatly help in identifying the conceptual and analytical challenges presented by socio-economic deprivation. It undertakes an assessment of the extent to which these challenges may be overcome by a creative interpretation of the refugee convention, consistent with correct principles of international treaty interpretation. Keohane, Robert O., International Institutions: Two Approaches in International Studies Quarterly, Vol. 32, No. 4 (Dec., 1988), 379-396. This is a journal article by Keohane that will also be helpful in formulating the rationalist approach to regime theory. Krasner, Stephen D. (ed) (1989) International Regimes. Cornell University Press: Cambridge This book by Krasner includes articles by various authors on neorealist and neoliberal approaches to regime theory. It also provides sharp criticism of regime theory and so therefore will help the research. Wendt, Alexander, Anarchy is what States Make of it: The Social Construction of Power Politics in International Organization, Vol. 46, No. 2 (Spring, 1992), 391-425 Wendts article will be useful in creating an alternative understanding to neorealism of how and why cooperation occurs in the international system of states. Aside, a variety of conventions, treaties, and agreements Will also be reviewed and referred to, including the 1951 Convention Relating to the Status of Refugees, the 1967 Protocol Relating to the Status of Refugees, the Organization of African Unity Convention Governing the Specific Aspects of Refugee Problems in Africa, the Cartagena Declaration on Refugees, the 1990 Dublin Convention, the 1990 Schengen Convention, the 1977 Treaty of Amsterdam, the 1950 European Convention on Human Rights, the 1981 African Charter on Human and peoples Rights and the 1948 Universal Declaration on Human Rights and its Protocols. These documents can be accessed in the annexes of Guy S, Goodwin-Gills book The Refugee in International Law2nd Edition. Oxford University Press: Oxford, 379-550. 2008 Global Trends: Refugee Asylum- seekers, Returnees, Internally Displaced and Stateless Persons (16 June 2009). James C. Hathaway (Ed.). Re-conceiving International Refugee Law. P. xvii Hasenclever, Mayer and Rittberger (1997) Theories of International Regimes.p.4 Creswell, J.W. (1994) Research design: Qualitative and quantitative approaches. Thousand Oaks, California: Sage. in Bryman (2001) Social Research Methods, Oxford University Press, Oxford, p.264

Non Hormonal Methods Of Contraception Health And Social Care Essay

The planetary human immunodeficiency virus ( HIV ) pandemic is progressively going a load of the female population. HIV is preponderantly acquired through heterosexual transmittal and in many parts of the universe, HIV prevalence and incidence rates are higher among adult females than work forces ( Daly et al 1994 ) . At the terminal of 2007, an estimated 15.4 million adult females were infected with HIV, most of them being of fertile age ( Heikinheimo and Lahteenmaki 2008 ) . Importantly, immature adult females aged 15-24 have a 4- to 7-fold increased hazard of going infected with HIV, when compared with immature work forces of the same age ( Simon et al. , 2006 ) . The demographics and paths of infection vary harmonizing to the stage of the HIV epidemic ( Beyrer, 2007 ) . Womans with HIV infection may wish to be after gestation to restrict their household or avoid gestation. The pick of contraceptive method in people populating with HIV is constrained by the demand to forestall bot h sexual transmittal of HIV and unwanted gestations. Correct usage of most user dependant methods requires a basic cognition of reproduction and literacy accomplishments to follow written instructions. Double map preventives that at the same time prevent HIV transmittal every bit good as unwanted gestations might be the most appropriate prophylactic method for adult females populating with HIV and AIDS ( Kakaire et al, 2010 ) .Main BodyThe human immunodeficiency virus ( HIV ) is a retrovirus belonging to the household of lentiviruses. Retroviruss can utilize their RNA and host Deoxyribonucleic acid to do viral DNA and are known for their long incubation periods. Like other retroviruses, HIV infects the organic structure, has a long incubation period or clinical latency, and finally causes the marks and symptoms of disease. HIV causes terrible harm to the immune system and finally destroys it by utilizing the Deoxyribonucleic acid of CD4+ cells to retroflex itself. In that procedure, the virus finally destroys the CD4+ cells ( Calles et al. 2010 ) . There are two types of human immunodeficiency virus ( HIV-1 and HIV-2 ) , which each evolved from a different simian immunodeficiency virus ( SIV ) . Both viruses emerged in the late twentieth century. In contrast to the SIV ‘s, which appear non to harm their natural archpriest hosts. HIV infection amendss the immune system, go forthing the organic structure susceptible to infection with a broad scope of bacteriums, viruses, Fungis, and Protozoa ( Calles et al. 2010 ) . Surveies have shown dramatic similarities but besides of import differences between HIV-1 and HIV-2. They have the same manners of transmittal and are associated with the same timeserving infections, but HIV-2appears to come on at a slower rate ( CDC ) . HIV-1 is much more prevailing than HIV-2. It is HIV-1 that is mostly responsible for the AIDS pandemic, while HIV-2 is chiefly restricted to West Africa. Now, in each twelvemonth of the early twenty-first century there are about 5 million new HIV infections, and about 3 million deceases from AIDS, which has become the 4th biggest cause of mortality in the universe ( Carter and Saunders 2007 ) . HIV-1 infection is characterized by an insidious impairment of the cellular immune system ( Vergis and Mellors 2000 ) . Both the measure and proportion of plasma CD4+ T-cells lessening steadily over a period of old ages to decennaries, and this progressive loss of CD4+ T-cells is associated with the development of AIDS in septic persons. The grade of immunodeficiency associated with HIV-1 infection, as defined by the oncoming of timeserving diseases, correlatives closely with plasma CD4+ T-cell counts ( Calles et al. 2010 ) . HIV ‘s Life Cycle Host cells infected with HIV have a sawed-off life span as a consequence of the virus ‘s utilizing them as â€Å" mills † to bring forth multiple transcripts of new HIV. Thus, HIV continuously uses new host cells to retroflex itself. Equally many as 10 million to 10 billion virions ( single viruses ) are produced day-to-day. In the first 24 H after exposure, HIV onslaughts or is captured by dendritic cells in the mucose membranes and tegument. Within 5 yearss after exposure, these septic cells make their manner to the lymph nodes and finally to the peripheral blood, where viral reproduction becomes rapid. CD4+ lymphocytes that are recruited to react to viral antigen migrate to the lymph nodes. These become activated and so proliferate via complex interaction of cytokines released in the microenvironment of the lymph nodes. This sequence of events makes the CD4+ cells more susceptible to HIV infection, and it explains the generalised lymphadenopath y feature of the acute retroviral syndrome seen in grownups and striplings. In contrast, HIV-infected monocytes allow viral reproduction but resist violent death. Therefore, monocytes act as reservoirs of HIV and as effecters of tissue harm in variety meats such as the encephalon ( Calles et al. 2010 ) . The HIV life rhythm includes six stages harmonizing to Calles et Al. ( 2010 ) binding and entry, rearward written text, integrating, reproduction, budding, and ripening ( Figure 1. Appendix 2. ) . Binding and Entry, the envelope proteins gp120 and gp41 bind to CD4+ cell receptors and co-receptors on the exterior of CD4+ cells and macrophages. The chemokine receptors CCR5 and CXCR4 facilitate viral entry. T-cell tropic viruses require CXCR4 to adhere, and macrotropic strains of the virus require CCR5. R5 is the most common virus transmitted during acute infection, and subsequently during infection X4 is the virus that is most common. The presence of a homozygous inactive mutant of the CCR5 allelomorph has caused opposition to infection by the R5 virus. The connection of the proteins and the receptors and co-receptors fuses the HIV membrane with the CD4+ cell membrane, and the virus enters the CD4+ cell and macrophage. The HIV membrane and the envelope proteins remain outside of the CD 4+ cell, whereas the nucleus of the virus enters the CD4+ cell. CD4+ cell enzymes interact with the viral nucleus and excite the release of viral RNA and the viral enzymes rearward RNA polymerase, integrase, and peptidase. The HIV RNA must be converted to DNA before it can be incorporated into the Deoxyribonucleic acid of the CD4+ cell. This incorporation must happen for the virus to multiply. The transition of HIV RNA to DNA is known as contrary written text and is mediated by the HIV enzyme contrary RNA polymerase. The consequence is the production of a individual strand of Deoxyribonucleic acid from the viral RNA. The individual strand of this new DNA so undergoes reproduction into dual isolated HIV DNA. Once rearward written text has occurred, the viral DNA can come in the karyon of the CD4+ cell. The viral enzyme integrase so inserts the viral DNA into the CD4+ cell ‘s Deoxyribonucleic acid. This procedure is known as integrating. The CD4+ cell has now been changed into a mill used to bring forth more HIV. The new DNA, which has been formed by the integrating of the viral DNA into the CD4+ cell, causes the production of courier Deoxyribonucleic acid that initiates the synthesis of HIV protei ns ( Calles et al. 2010 ) . The HIV proteins and viral RNA, all the constituents needed to do a new virus, gather at the CD4+ cell membrane to organize new viruses. These new viruses push through the different parts of the cell wall by budding. Many viruses can force through the wall of one CD4+ cell. These new viruses leave the CD4+ cell and contain all the constituents necessary to infect other CD4+ cells. The new virus has all the constituents necessary to infect other CD4+ cells but can non make so until it has matured. During this procedure, the HIV peptidase enzyme cuts the long HIV proteins of the virus into smaller functional units that so reassemble to organize a mature virus. The virus undergone the procedure of ripening and is now ready to infect other cells ( Calles et al. 2010 ) . Safe and effectual methods of contraceptive method represent a critical constituent of preventative wellness attention cut downing maternal and infant mortality ; particularly in adult females populating in resource-limited scenes ( Zdenek et al. 2010 ) here is broad fluctuation in contraceptive method prevalence worldwide runing from 8 % of adult females aged 15-49 old ages in western Africa up to 78 % in northern Europe. Female sterilization ( 32 % ) , intrauterine devices ( 22 % ) , and the unwritten preventive pill ( 14 % ) history for more than two tierces of all prophylactic pattern worldwide.4 In less developed states 70 % of contraceptive method users rely on female sterilization and intrauterine devices in portion because they are advocated by health care services as a consequence of cost effectivity in footings of gestation bar and service proviso ( UNPD, 2001 ) . Non-Hormonal Methods of Contraception A high grade of protection against HIV sexual transmittal is provided by consistent correct rubber usage ( Davis and Weller 1999 ) ; inconsistent or incorrect usage is non protective. Most planetary HIV transmittal occurs because rubbers are non used at all during sexual intercourse ( Steiner and Cates 1999 ) .Condom accidents are reported by 1-12 % of users and the method prophylactic failure rate is at least 12 % ( Trussel et al. 1992 ) . Double protection, the coincident usage of an effectual contraceptive method method with consistent rubber usage, has been advocated to cut down the hazard of unplanned gestation, horizontal transmittal of HIV to a non-infected spouse, transmittal of immune virus to an spouse with HIV infection, and the hazard of acquisition of other STIs including high hazard human papillomavirus ( HPV ) types ( UNDP/UNFPA/WHO 2002 ) . Male rubbers are the lone means proven to significantly cut down the hazard of HIV transmittal in heterosexual intercourse ( Cates 2005 ) . Harmonizing to a recent Cochrane reappraisal, consistent usage of male rubbers consequences in 80 % decrease in the hazard of HIV transmittal among HIV-serodiscordant twosomes ( Weller and Davis-Beaty, 2002 ) .The female rubber is a polyurethane sheath with two flexible rings at each terminal ; one ring is inserted into the upper vagina and the other covers the introitus. The female rubber is less likely than male rubbers to leak or interrupt during sex, but invasion of the outer pealing into the vagina is reported in 2 % of copulatory episodes. The cumulative chance of vaginal exposure to seeds with female rubber usage has been estimated as 3 % , compared to 11.6 % with the male rubber. The prophylactic failure rate is estimated at 5-21 % over 12 months ( Daly et al. 1994 ) . Consistent usage of rubber was associated with holding one spouse, greater income, no illicit drug usage and when rubbers were the lone preventive method used ( Wilson et al. 1999 ) .Women who besides use, effectual or long term methods of contraceptive method are less likely to describe consistent rubber usage ( Magalhaes et al. 2002 ) . Condom usage is besides related to whether the adult female has informed her spouse of her position ( DesgreA?es-du-LouE†  et al. 2002 ) less consistent usage is reported by concordant twosomes ( Clark et al. 1997 ) , even within discordant partnerships consistent rubber usage is reported by merely about 50 % twosomes ( Allen et al. 2003 ) .Obstacles to greater usage of male rubbers include deficiency of handiness, fright of being perceived as holding multiple spouses and being unfaithful to a regular spouse, resistance on spiritual evidences, and male laterality in determination devising ( UNDP/UNFPA/WHO, 2002 ) . Women populating with HIV inf ection may experience unable to unwrap their HIV position and negotiate rubber usage with new sexual spouses for fright of forsaking, domestic force, loss of economic support, and societal isolation. The issues around female rubber usage are besides negociating barrier method usage, ( Kalichman et al.2000 ) method acceptableness by users, and higher cost compared with the male rubber. The WHO audience on reuse suggested that female rubbers still run into fabrication quality appraisal specifications after seven rhythms of bleach disinfections, rinsing, drying, and relubrication. This protocol has non been evaluated for safety and efficaciousness in human usage and the WHO does non urge or advance reuse of female rubbers and is presently patronizing research to measure reuse protocols under local conditions ( WHO, 2002 ) . Furthermore, stop and vimules cover the neck and parts of the vaginal wall, while caps cover merely the neck. Their usage in discordant twosomes is non recommended, as a comparatively big country of vaginal mucous membrane remains exposed, micro injury during interpolation, and the accompaniment usage of nonoxynol-9 spermatocide may do epithelial break and increase viral transmittal hazard to the male spouse ( Carlin and Boag 1995 ) . Nonoxynol-9 ( N-9 ) spermatocide provides no protection against sexually familial infections including HIV ( Wilkinson et al. 2002 ) and frequent usage increases the hazard of HIV acquisition ( Van Damme et Al. 2002 ) . WHO Contraceptive Research and Development ( CONRAD ) proficient audience concluded that N-9 should non be used or promoted for the bar of HIV in adult females at high hazard of infection ( WHO 2001 ) . There are no published surveies on the female-male transmittal hazard with N-9 usage by adult females with HIV infection. It seems advis able for adult females with HIV infection with discordant sexual spouse to avoid N-9 spermicidal entirely or with other prophylactic methods to cut down the possible hazard of HIV sexual transmittal. There is no grounds that rubbers lubricated with N-9 are more effectual in forestalling gestation than rubbers lubricated with silicone. However, where pick is limited it is better to utilize any rubber than no rubber at all. In the hereafter, effectual and acceptable micro biocides may hold a function, supplying HIV positive adult females unable to negociate consistent rubber usage with a discordant spouse with an extra method to cut down sexual transmittal. HORMONAL METHODS OF CONTRACEPTION The combined unwritten preventive ( COC ) pill is an effectual user dependent contraceptive method with the non-contraceptive benefits of rhythm control, decrease in hypermenorrhea and dysmenorrhoea. Absorption can be affected by drawn-out intercurrent diarrhea and emesis. The COC is metabolised by the liver and its usage is contraindicated in adult females with unnatural liver map, which may be caused by intoxicant maltreatment, ague or chronic viral hepatitis, and inauspicious events on antiretroviral combinations. These factors are peculiarly relevant when doing contraceptive method picks for HIV positive adult females who are current or old shooting drug users with chronic active hepatitis C infection. Current drug users frequently have a helter-skelter life style that precludes effectual usage of user dependent contraceptive method methods ( Mitchell and Stephens, 2004 ) . Progestogen ( POP ) merely pills methods may be used by adult females with contraindications to estrogen usage. The POP is an effectual preventive method with right and consistent usage ; ovulation is non inhibited in all users, and inconsistent usage can ensue in gestation. A new progestin merely pill, Cerazette, which contains 75 milligram desogestrel, has late been introduced. In surveies Cerazette inhibited ovulation in97 % of rhythms at 7 and 12 months after induction ; this would propose enhanced efficaciousness in comparing with conventional POPs, though as yet unconfirmed by comparative tests ( Mitchelle and Stephens, 2004 ) . Under the long playing progestin merely contraceptive method, depot Provera ethanoate ( DMPA ) 150 milligram is given by deep intramuscular injection at 12 hebdomadal intervals and norethisterone oenanthate ( Noristerat ) 200 mg every8 hebdomads. These methods have the advantage of non being intercourse related but require regular entree to wellness attention for repetition injections. Likewise, implants need to be inserted by a trained wellness professional. Implanon is effectual for 3 old ages, and Jadelle for 5 old ages ( non licensed in the United Kingdom ) ; both are extremely effectual, non-user dependant, and reversible methods of progestin merely contraceptive method. Harmonizing to Mitchell and Stephens ( 2004 ) , factors impacting contraceptive method pick for HIV positive adult females are influence by the state of abode, the handiness of methods, entree to healthcare services, and cost.Religious, cultural, and personal beliefs of the function of adult female in society, acceptableness to spouse, effects on menses. Subsequent is the HIV position of adult female that involves the CD4 count, viral burden and physical well-being. Furthermore HIV serostatus, indefinite spouse concordant and discordant. Then catamenial, sexual, and generative history consist of hypermenorrhea, dysmenorrhoea, past pelvic infection, past ectopic gestation, gestation planning. In add-on the medical history findings like unnatural liver map, past history of venous thromboembolic disease, high blood pressure, lipemia, and current drug maltreatment. Finally the medicines causes such as, enzyme inducers, antibiotics, teratogenic agents. In the survey of ‘contraception among individuals populating HIV with infection go toing an HIV attention and support Centre in Kabale, Uganda ‘ by Kakaire et Al. ( 2010 ) shows that factors independently associated with prophylactic usage were degree of instruction and whether respondent has changed spouses since HIV diagnosing. Contraception usage and conformity is related to the scope of methods available, patient pick, prevailing wellness and spiritual beliefs, perceptual experiences of method effectivity, and side effects ( for illustration, adult females may hold less tolerance for heavy and drawn-out vaginal hemorrhage than amenorrhea ( Playle 2000 ) . Correct usage of most user dependant methods requires a basic cognition of reproduction and literacy accomplishments to follow written instructions. In Gazmararian et Al, ( 1999 ) many states adult females are unable to do independent determinations about their sexual and generative wellness because of political inst ability within society, deficiency of economic independency, and predominating cultural or spiritual attitudes to adult females ‘s rights. The Government ‘s 2001 National Strategy for Sexual Health and HIV outlined policies to cut down degrees of insecure sex, new HIV diagnosings, and undiagnosed HIV by 2007, via puting in bar, bettering outreach services, co-ordinating enterprises and widening information runs. A cardinal mark for a 25 % lessening in freshly acquired HIV infections by 2007 was non met ; new diagnosings have increased significantly. The US Department of Health ( 2009 ) argues that other marks were achieved ; HIV proving increased and clinic waiting times declined. A policy briefing high spots the crisis in presenting just wellness attention for people populating with HIV and AIDS, and the overpowering load it places on adult females and misss. HIV and AIDS have brought an increased demand for community and home-based attention. Due to traditional gender norms and unequal gender dealingss it is the adult females and misss in the communities who are the primary health professionals, whilst perchance being HIV positive, and frequently needing attention themselves.DecisionAt this point in the AIDS epidemic, the bar of the heterosexual transmittal of HIV is of paramount importance ( Daly et al. 1994 ) . Women all over the universe are at hazard for HIV, even within matrimonial relationships. Sing that preventive usage is being promoted worldwide, including in countries where HIV incidences increasing, farther cognition sing the consequence of single preventives on HIV transmittal is imperative. Development and proviso of safe, effectual, low-cost a nd acceptable contraceptive method for adult females at hazard of HIV and those populating with HIV/AIDS is one of the major challenges of generative medical specialty. Currently, consistent usage of male rubbers is the lone proven means to cut down the hazard of HIV transmittal in heterosexual intercourse. All the available reversible prophylactic methods-OCs, prophylactic injections and IUDs-can by and large be used both by adult females at hazard of HIV infection and by HIV-infected adult females. An ideal preventive scheme for adult females at hazard of HIV infection would supply coincident protection against both unintended gestation and HIV acquisition. Word Count: 3,029Appendix 1Mention Lists:Allen, S. , Meinzen-Derr, J.and Kautzman, M. ( 2003 ) . Sexual behavior of HIV discordant twosomes after HIV guidance and testing. AIDS, vol.17, p. 733-740. Beyrer, C. ( 2007 ) . 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Van Damme, L. , Ramjee, G. and Alary, M. ( 2002 ) . Effectiveness of COL-1492, anonoxynol-9 vaginal gel, on HIV-1 transmittal in female sex workers: A randomized controlled test. Lancet, vol. 360, p. 971-977. Vergis, E.N. and Mellors, J.W. ( 2000 ) .A Natural history of HIV-1 infection. Infect Dis Clin North Am, A vol. 14, issue 4, p. 809-825.A Weller, S.C. and Davis-Beaty, K. ( 2002 ) . Condom effectivity in cut downing heterosexual HIV transmittal. Cochrane Database Systematic Reviews, issue 1, p.1-22. Wilkinson, D. , Tholandi, M. and Ramjee, G. ( 2002 ) . Nonoxynol-9 spermatocide for bar of vaginally acquired HIV and other sexually familial infections: systematic reappraisal and meta-analysis of randomised controlled tests including more than 5000 adult females. Lancet Infect Dis, vol, 2, p. 613-617. Wilson, T. , Massad, L.S. and Riester, K.A. ( 1999 ) . Sexual, prophylactic, and drug usage behavior of adult females with HIV and those at high hazard for infection: consequences from the Women ‘s Interagency HIV Study. AIDS, vol. 13, p. 591-598. WHO/CONRAD Technical Consultation on Nonoxynol-9. ( 2001 ) .Geneva, Summary Report. WHO. ( 2002 ) . Information update: considerations sing the reuse of the female rubber, ( www.who.int/reproductive-health/rtis/reuse.en.html ) . Zdenek Hel, Z. , Stringer, E. and Mestecky, J. ( 2010 ) . Sexual activity Steroid Hormones, Hormonal Contraception, and the Immunobiology of Human Immunodeficiency Virus-1 Infection. Endocrine Reviews, vol.31 ( 1 ) , p.79-9.